The forest

The forest biome

About 420 million years ago, during the Silurian Period, ancient plants and arthropods began to occupy the land. Over the millions of years that followed, these land colonizers developed and adapted to their new habitat. The first forests were dominated by giant horsetails, club mosses, and ferns that stood up to 40 feet tall.
Life on Earth continued to evolve, and in the late Paleozoic, gymnosperms appeared. By the Triassic Period (245-208 mya), gymnosperms dominated the Earth's forests. In the Cretaceous Period (144-65m mya), the first flowering plants (angiosperms) appeared. They evolved together with insects, birds, and mammals and radiated rapidly, dominating the landscape by the end of the Period. The landscape changed again during the Pleistocene Ice Ages — the surface of the planet that had been dominated by tropical forests for millions of years changed, and temperate forests spread in the Northern Hemisphere.
Today, forests occupy approximately one-third of Earth's land area, account for over two-thirds of the leaf area of land plants, and contain about 70% of carbon present in living things. They have been held in reverence in folklore and worshipped in ancient religions. However, forests are becoming major casualties of civilization as human populations have increased over the past several thousand years, bringing deforestation, pollution, and industrial usage problems to this important biome.
Present-day forest biomes, biological communities that are dominated by trees and other woody vegetation (Spurr and Barnes 1980), can be classified according to numerous characteristics, with seasonality being the most widely used. Distinct forest types also occur within each of these broad groups.
There are three major types of forests, classed according to latitude:

Tropical forest

Tropical forests are characterized by the greatest diversity of species. They occur near the equator, within the area bounded by latitudes 23.5 degrees N and 23.5 degrees S. One of the major characteristics of tropical forests is their distinct seasonality: winter is absent, and only two seasons are present (rainy and dry). The length of daylight is 12 hours and varies little.


Temperature is on average 20-25° C and varies little throughout the year: the average temperatures of the three warmest and three coldest months do not differ by more than 5 degrees.
Precipitation is evenly distributed throughout the year, with annual rainfall exceeding 2000 mm.
Soil is nutrient-poor and acidic. Decomposition is rapid and soils are subject to heavy leaching.
Canopy in tropical forests is multilayered and continuous, allowing little light penetration.
Flora is highly diverse: one square kilometer may contain as many as 100 different tree species. Trees are 25-35 m tall, with buttressed trunks and shallow roots, mostly evergreen, with large dark green leaves. Plants such as orchids, bromeliads, vines (lianas), ferns, mosses, and palms are present in tropical forests.
Fauna include numerous birds, bats, small mammals, and insects.
Further subdivisions of this group are determined by seasonal distribution of rainfall:
evergreen rainforest: no dry season.
seasonal rainforest: short dry period in a very wet tropical region (the forest exhibits definite seasonal changes as trees undergo developmental changes simultaneously, but the general character of vegetation remains the same as in evergreen rainforests).
semievergreen forest: longer dry season (the upper tree story consists of deciduous trees, while the lower story is still evergreen).
moist/dry deciduous forest (monsoon): the length of the dry season increases further as rainfall decreases (all trees are deciduous

Temperate forest
Temperate forests occur in eastern North America, northeastern Asia, and western and central Europe. Well-defined seasons with a distinct winter characterize this forest biome. Moderate climate and a growing season of 140-200 days during 4-6 frost-free months distinguish temperate forests.

Temperature varies from -30° C to 30° C.
Precipitation (75-150 cm) is distributed evenly throughout the year.
Soil is fertile, enriched with decaying litter.
Canopy is moderately dense and allows light to penetrate, resulting in well-developed and richly diversified understory vegetation and stratification of animals.
Flora is characterized by 3-4 tree species per square kilometer. Trees are distinguished by broad leaves that are lost annually and include such species as oak, hickory, beech, hemlock, maple, basswood, cottonwood, elm, willow, and spring-flowering herbs.
Fauna is represented by squirrels, rabbits, skunks, birds, deer, mountain lion, bobcat, timber wolf, fox, and black bear.
Further subdivisions of this group are determined by seasonal distribution of rainfall:
moist conifer and evergreen broad-leaved forests: wet winters and dry summers (rainfall is concentrated in the winter months and winters are relatively mild).
dry conifer forests: dominate higher elevation zones; low precipitation.
mediterranean forests: precipitation is concentrated in winter, less than 1000 mm per year.
temperate coniferous: mild winters, high annual precipitation (greater than 2000 mm).
temperate broad-leaved rainforests: mild, frost-free winters, high precipitation (more than 1500 mm) evenly distributed throughout the year.
Only scattered remnants of original temperate forests remain.

Boreal forest (taiga)
Boreal forests, or taiga, represent the largest terrestial biome. Occuring between 50 and 60 degrees north latitudes, boreal forests can be found in the broad belt of Eurasia and North America: two-thirds in Siberia with the rest in Scandinavia, Alaska, and Canada. Seasons are divided into short, moist, and moderately warm summers and long, cold, and dry winters. The length of the growing season in boreal forests is 130 days.
Temperatures are very low.
Precipitation is primarily in the form of snow, 40-100 cm annually.
Soil is thin, nutrient-poor, and acidic.
Canopy permits low light penetration, and as a result, understory is limited.
Flora consist mostly of cold-tolerant evergreen conifers with needle-like leaves, such as pine, fir, and spruce.
Fauna include woodpeckers, hawks, moose, bear, weasel, lynx, fox, wolf, deer, hares, chipmunks, shrews, and bats.
Current extensive logging in boreal forests may soon cause their disappearance.

Auto Insurance

Next to your home, your automobile is often the most expensive piece of property you own. As a result, it is important to seek the best value when buying your insurance. To ensure that you have the proper protection, there are a number of ways that you can reduce the cost of your auto insurance premiums while obtaining the coverage that you need, including:

Deductibles

Choosing higher deductibles for collision and comprehensive coverage is an easy and cost-effective way to lower your auto insurance bill. In many cases, the premium savings realized by switching to a higher deductible may be enough to offset the cost difference of an increased deductible in just a few years.

Discounts

Multi-policy – By insuring your auto and home with ERIE, you will receive a discount on your auto premium as well as your homeowners insurance premium.
Multi-car – If you insure two or more cars with ERIE and they are owned and used by the individual and/or relatives living in the same house, you receive a discount.

Driver-related Discounts

Good drivers who have no accidents or violations receive the most competitive rates, but there are other factors that can reduce your premiums even further, including:

Passive restraints – If your vehicle is equipped with factory-installed automatic seat belts or air bags, you will receive a discount on the medical payments or personal injury protection portion of your premium.

Anti-theft devices – You may receive a discount on the comprehensive portion of your premium if your vehicle has active or passive anti-theft devices.
Anti-lock brakes – Vehicles with factory-installed anti-lock brake systems on all four wheels are eligible for this discount that applies to the bodily injury and property damage coverages.

Peace Through Development

December 6, 2007 - The World Bank today extended its largest ever support package to . The aim is to improve living conditions through better education, roads, and irrigation, and empowerment among the rural poor.Susan Goldmark, World Bank Country Director for Nepal said development progress is vital for sustaining peace in the country. “At this critical juncture in Nepal’s history it is very important to demonstrate the impact on the ground. It is time for a peace benefit to emerge.”Goldmark said inequality and social exclusion are among Nepal’s foremost development challenges. The poverty rate in rural areas is much higher than in urban centers, and inequality and rural-urban disparities are increasing. Everywhere in the country, ethnic groups, low caste ‘dalit’ communities, and women lag behind in terms of incomes, assets, and most human development indicators.“Through improved schools, roads, water provision, and income-generating activities, we hope these projects will help the country step up the delivery of basic services, particularly in areas that have lost over a decade to the conflict,” Goldmark said.

Rural Communities in the Driver’s Seat December 7,

2007 - For years, Min Bahadur Magar, a 48-year old farmer in the remote Ramechhap district in eastern Nepal, had to borrow money from a local money lender – paying a 50 percent interest rate - to make ends meet.Today his life has fundamentally changed. With training and money given by the World Bank-funded Poverty Alleviation Fund (PAF), Magar started a vegetable business. He now earns nearly US$100 a month from selling vegetables alone.“I am able to feed my family all year round, and send all of my eight children to school.” said Magar. “Now I am borrowing from my community organization paying a small fee. In stead of collecting money, the man I used to borrow from comes over to buy vegetables.”Balram Sunuwar, a farmer in the neighboring village, also received training and assistance from PAF and said this has turned his life around. “There were no resources available to assist a person like me before this program. I received training which enabled me to set up my own nursery.Susan Goldmark, World Bank Country Director for Nepal said it is important for poor people, especially in rural areas, to feel that their lives are getting better in tangible ways. “It is vital to ensure they have a stake in the peace continuing. There are very high expectations after ten years lost to the civil war,” Goldmark said.

Poor people in charge of their own development

The PAF is a community-driven development project that operates on the belief it’s the poor who are best suited to manage their own needs and resources. They are organized into community groups and collectively identify, prioritize, plan, fund, and implement their development needs, free to choose from an open menu to correspond to local priorities.The PAF was designed to address the root causes of Nepal’s civil conflict - poverty, inequality, and lack of services - and the program began implementation at the height of the conflict about four years ago. It is a targeted program for the marginalized and the excluded, either because of gender, caste, ethnicity and location.Ramechhap is one of the least developed districts in Nepal - the poorest country in South Asia. One-third of Nepal’s population lives in absolute poverty with little access to basic services such as education, health, and drinking water.“69 percent of the households have food sufficiency for only three months of the year so income-generating activities are their first priority,” said Raj Babu Shrestha, PAF’s Executive Director.Through income-generating activities and community infrastructure projects, the PAF has reached over 900,000 rural Nepalese in 25 districts since it began operations. Incomes for beneficiary families have increased by some 15 percent. More than 15,600 households now have road access for the first time, and water supply, bridges, and sanitation have been provided for more than 32,000 households.With the US$100 million IDA grant approved by the World Bank on December 6 for the second phase of the project, the PAF will expand its reach to cover all of Nepal’s 75 districts, benefiting around one million households.

Empowering the Disempowered

Everywhere in the country, ethnic groups, low caste communities, and women lag behind in terms of incomes, assets, and most human development indicators. The PAF uses targets and incentives to encourage community organizations to include women, dalits and janajatis.“The results have been very encouraging,” said Geeta Sethi, the World Bank’s team leader for the project. “In Ramechhap district, for instance, over half the members of these community organizations are women, and nearly 90 percent are dalits or janajatis.”Saraswati Shrestha who works as a social mobilizer for the PAF says that women are playing a much more active role in the community.“Before, women would not go to meetings but this has all changed now. They regularly attend meetings and their voices are heard. There is a realization that men and women should work together for the community.”

Education for all Nepalese

Even during the civil war, Nepal’s education rates rose. Girls enrolled in primary school in equal number to boys, and with expanded educational reforms the country is likely to reach the target of 96 percent net enrolment rate. The US$60 million in additional financing for the IDA funned Education for All Project is designed to further improve access to basic and primary education for children, especially from disadvantaged groups. The project builds on the Community School Support Project, which has helped to significantly improve access of children from disadvantaged communities.

Irrigation for Farming

With 80 percent of the population relying on agriculture for their livelihoods, enhanced irrigation in Nepal is critical to increase incomes and reduce poverty. The US$50 million IDA grant for the Irrigation and Water Resources Management Project aims to improve irrigated agriculture productivity and management of selected irrigation schemes. It seeks to increase availability and reliability of supply of irrigation water, which is expected to lead to higher agriculture productivity and increased cropping intensity.

Access to all-season Roads

Nepal’s road density is well below those of its neighbors in South Asia. Of the75 districts of Nepal, 12 are not yet connected by road and another 14 are linked with seasonal tracks or dirt roads. The US$42.60 million IDA grant for the Road Sector Development Project supports upgrading roads in five hill districts which currently lack all-season road access, which will help improve access to economic centers and social services. It entails upgrading of about 297 km of existing dry-season roads/tracks to all-season standard with sealed gravel pavements selected from a pool of more than 1000 km of prioritized roads.

Animals

What is an animal? It's a simple enough question, but the answer is complex and requires an understanding of some rather hefty scientific concepts and terms. Here we'll explore the basic characteristics that make an organism an animal and attempt to decipher the scientific jargon that surrounds these concepts.
It's easy to say, for instance, that a giraffe, a whale, or a dog is an animal. But when it comes down to making a list of animal characteristics—identifying specific traits shared by ALL animals—it gets complicated.

The list that follows describes characteristics shared by all animals, from snails and zebras to mongooses and sea stars. These characteristics help us to declare that, for instance, corals are animals, not plants. They help us trace the evolution of animals and build a framework for placing animals into subcategories that are more familiar to us such as birds, mammals, reptiles or amphibians.

1. All animals are eukaryotes.

All living organisms can be sorted into one of two groups depending on the basic structure of their cells. These two groups are called the prokaryotes and the eukaryotes.
Prokaryotes and eukaryotes differ from one another in many fundamental ways but the differences are difficult to see. Cells are tiny and you must use a microscope to view their internal structure. But once magnified, the differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes becomes more apparent. The interna

structure of a prokaryote cell is less complex than that of a eukaryote. Prokaryotes have no nucleus, eukaryotes have a nucleus. In eukaryotes, the nucleus holds the cell's genetic material within a membrane. In prokaryotes, genetic material is located in a central region of the cell and is called a nucleoid, it is not enclosed in a membrane.
And the differences do not stop at the nucleus. There are numerous other differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes:

Eukaryotes have linear strands of genetic material (DNA); prokaryotes have circular DNA.
Eukaryotic DNA is attached to proteins (called histones) and is organized into chromosomes; prokaryotic DNA is not associated with proteins nor is it organized in chromosomes.
Eukaryotic cells have numerous membrane-bound structures within the cell called organelles. These organelles perform various functions within the cell. Prokaryotes lack any such membrane-bound structures.

Eukaryotic cells are more complex, structured, and larger than prokaryotic cells.
Despite these differences, eukaryotes and prokaryotes share many characteristics and are therefore believed to be evolutionarily related. Scientists believe that the more complex eukaryotes evolved from the earlier prokaryotes.
So all animals are eukaryotes. That is, they are made up of complex cell that have membrane-bound nuclei and organelles. Their DNA is linear and organized into chromosomes. Keep in mind though, that the reverse is not true—not all eukaryotes are animals. Plants, fungi, and protists—in addition to animals—are eukaryotes.

2. All animals are heterotrophs.

All living things need carbon to support the basic processes of life such as growth, development, and reproduction. There are two ways an organism can get the carbon they need:
An organism can assimilate carbon from their environment in the form of carbon dioxide (from the atmosphere) or inorganic compounds. They can ingest other organisms and thus obtain carbon from the organic materials that make up the other organism. The term autotroph describes such organisms
An organism can obtain the carbon they need by getting it from other living organisms that are made up of carbon-containing organic molecules. The term heterotroph describes this type of organism, one that uses organic materials as a source of energy for growth and development.
Green plants are autotrophs. They take energy from the sun and use it along with carbon available in the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide to produce sugar, a simple organic compound. In contrast, all animals are heterotrophs. They ingest plants and other organisms as a way to get their carbon the energy they need to live.

3. Animals are multicellular. Most animals (with the exception of sponges) have bodies that are differentiated into tissues.

Animals' bodies are made up of multiple cells. In most animals, those cells are organized into different tissues that perform different functions. During the development of an animal, cells differentiate so they can perform specific functions. Groups of cells with similar specializations that form a common function are referred to as a tissue. One exception to this is sponges (Phylum Porifera) which have do not posses tissues (they don't have muscles or nerves).

4. Most animals are capable of movement.

Unlike plants, which are fixed to the substrate in which they grow, most animals are motile (capable of movement). One exception is again sponges, which are sedentary organisms

4. Most animals undergo sexual reproduction although a small number are capable of asexual reproduction.

Most animals reproduce sexually via egg and sperm. This means genetic information is crossed between individuals and variability between parents and offspring is maintained. There are a few animals that are capable of asexual (non sexual) reproduction. These include .

5. Most animals are diploid.

The terms diploid and haploid are used to describe how many copies of genetic material are contained within a cell. In diploid cells, there are two full sets of the cell's genetic material, in haploid cells, there is only one full set of the cell's genetic material. Most animals are made up of diploid cells.

6. Animals do not possess rigid cell wals (plants do have rigid cell walls)

In plants, the cell wall provides structural support and protection for the cell. Some bacteria also possess cell walls. Animals do not have cell walls.

About Tiger

TAXONOMY
1. Cat species comprise about 16% of the world's carnivores. The taxonomic classification has fluctuated since new morphological and genetic research has been documented.

2.The Felidae family has 18 genera encompassing about 40 species. There are 13 genera within the Felinae subfamily, 4 genera within the Pantherinae subfamily and 1 within the Acinonychinae subfamily.

3.There are eight recognized subspecies of tiger, five of which are living (Bengal, Amur, Indo-Chinese, Sumatran and South China tigers). These subspecies are distinguished by their geographic distribution and physical characteristics such as size, hair length and/or thickness and striping.

4.The Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) has reddish-orange colored fur with dark brown-black vertical stripes. Bengal tigers may weigh up to 220 kg (480 lb) and are about 2.9 m (9.5 ft) in length. They inhabit the Indian subcontinent, India, Nepal, Bangledesh and Burma. This is the subspecies found at Busch Gardens Tampa Bay

The Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) is the largest living cat species, weighing up to 300 kg. (660 lb) and is about 3.3 m. (10.9 ft) in length. Historically they were called Siberian tigers but have since been renamed because they are currently found near the Amur River region of Russia, China and North Korea, not Siberia. Amur tigers have lighter and fewer stripes than other tiger subspecies. They have long and thick hair to help them stay warm in their cold climate.

5.The Indo-Chinese tiger (Panthera tigris corbetti) is one of the smallest tiger subspecies, weighing up to 182 kg (400 lb) and is about 2.8 m (9ft) in length. They have a large range encompassing continental southeast Asia region (southern China, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, Malaysia, Thailand and eastern Burma).

6.The South China tiger (Panthera tigris amoyensis) are native to South Central China. They may weigh up to 150 kg (330 lb) and are about 2.5 m (8 ft) in length. South China tigers are the most critically endangered of all tiger subspecies with a population estimate between 30 to 80 individuals.

7.The Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) is the smallest living tiger subspecies, weighing up to 120 kg (265 lb) and is about 2.4 m (8 ft) in length. They are found in Sumatra, part of Indonesia. The Sumatran tiger's fur is darker in coloration than other tiger species with a deep orange to reddish coat and black stripes.

8.The Javan tiger (Panthera tigris sondaica) was exclusively found in Java Indonesia and went extinct in the early 1980's They had thin black stripes that were usually double-looped. The Javan and Bali tigers were very similar in their small size weighing only 90 to 90 kg (200 to 220 lb)

9.The Caspian tiger (Panthera tigris virgata) was native from Turkey through central and west Asia and went extinct around the 1950's. They had a distinctive style for hunting in that they stalked migrating prey over long distances rather than holding territories like other tiger subspecies. The Balinese tiger (Panthera tigris balica) was exclusively found in Bali in Indonesia and went extinct in the early 1930's. The Javan and Bali tigers were very similar in their small size weighing only 90 to 90 kg (200 to 220 lb)

NOMENCLATURE

1.The species name tigris is Greek for "arrow". It is thought that its name was derived from the straight (as an arrow) and fast-flowing Tigris river that lies between Kurdistan in east central Turkey and the Persian Gulf

PHYLOGENY
1.The genus Panthera includes the following four big cat species, tiger (Panthera tigris), lion (Panthera leo), leopard (Panthera pardus) and jaguar (Panthera onca) that are capable of roaring. These big cats possess thickened vocal folds below their vocal cords and a roar is produced by vibrations of these folds. Historically, snow leopards were classified under the Panthera genus. However, their less-developed vocal folds have led to their reclassification into their own genus

FOSSIL RECORD

1.Many scientists believe the first mammals emerged about 208 million years ago but the true Age of Mammals did not begin until about 65 million years ago, after dinosaurs became extinc

2.The first carnivores emerged from a group of animals known as miacoids about 60 to 80 million years ago. About the size of a domestic cat, 1 to 3 kg (2 to 7 lb), miacoids were arboreal (tree-dwelling) and had developed carnassials (sharp cutting teeth) which they used for cutting and crushing. Miacoids are the oldest tiger ancestors recorded to date.

3.Carnivores divided into two groups called Feliformia and Caniformia about 40 million years ago. The Feliformia group was more cat-like and eventually encompassed animals that include cats, hyenas, civets and mongooses. The Caniformia group was more bear-like and eventually encompassed animals that include bears, raccoons, weasels, dogs, skunks, badgers, sea lions, seals and walruses.

4.About 37 million years ago civets and mongooses diverged from the Feliformia group into their own respective group or clade. Hyenas diverged from the Feliformia group later, around 35 million years ago, into their respective clade.

5.Thirty million years ago Proailurus, the oldest cat appeared in the fossil record. Proailurus was native to the area now known as France. It is estimated to have weighed about 25 pounds, had a length of about 75 cm (30 in), arboreal and had eight more teeth than modern day cats.

6.Twenty million years ago a group of cats called Pseudaelurines appeared in the fossil record and are believed to be the direct ancestors of all modern day cat species (37 species).

7.About 1.6 million years ago Smilodon appeared in the fossil record and is known as the saber-toothed cat. Smilodon fossils were discovered from the La Brea tar pits, which is Los Angeles today, but their genus was widespread throughout North and South America. The saber-tooth name was derived from their long curved upper canines which resembled sabers. Saber-toothed cats became extinct about 10,000 years ago.

8.Fossil evidence and genetic information has determined that the lion, leopard and jaguar have more in common with each other than with the tiger. Thus it is estimated that the tiger diverged earlier from the common Panthera ancestor than other members of its genus.

EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVES OF THE TIGER

1.The first people to embrace the tiger as an important symbol in their culture were the Indus Valley civilization of Harappa and Mohenjo Daro (area known today as Pakistan) around 5,000 years ago. Tiger symbols were engraved on seals and worn as amulets as a representation of property ownership.

2.Over a thousand years ago the Roman Empire was at its peak. Tigers with their great strength were used for entertainment purposes in Colosseum games.

Structure And Reproduction and development

Structure

With a few exceptions, most notably the sponges (Phylum Porifera) and Placozoa, animals have bodies differentiated into separate tissues. These include muscles, which are able to contract and control locomotion, and nerve tissu , which sends and processes signals. There is also typically an internal digestive chamber, with one or two openings. Animals with this sort of organization are called metazoans, or eumetazoans when the former is used for animals in general.
All animals have eukaryotic cells, surrounded by a characteristic extracellular matrix composed of collagenand elastic glycoproteins. This may be calcified to form structures like shells, bones, and spicules. During development it forms a relatively flexible framework upon which cells can move about and be reorganized, making complex structures possible. In contrast, other multicellular organisms like plants and fungi have cells held in place by cell walls, and so develop by progressive growth. Also, unique to animal cells are the following intercellular junctions: tightr junctions, gap junctions, and desmosomes.



Reproduction and development

Nearly all animals undergo some form of sexual reproduction. Adults are diploid or polyploid. They have a few specialized reproductive cells, which undergo meiosis to produce smaller motile spermatozoa or larger non-motile ova. These fuse to form zygotes which develop into new individuals.Many animals are also capable of asexual reproduction. This may take place through parthenogenesis, where fertile eggs are produced without mating, or in some cases through fragmentation.
A zygote initially develops into a hollow sphere, called a blastula, which undergoes rearrangement and differentiation. In sponges, blastula larvae swim to a new location and develop into a new sponge. In most other groups, the blastula undergoes more complicated rearrangement. It first invaginates to form a gastrula with a digestive chamber, and two separate germ layers - an external ectoderm and an internal endoderm. In most cases, a mesoderm also develops between them. These germ layers then differentiate to form tissues and organs.
Most animals grow by indirectly using the energy of sunlight. Plants use this energy to convert sunlight into simple sugars using a process known as photosynthesis. Starting with the molecules carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O), photosynthesis converts the energy of sunlight into chemical energy stored in the bonds of glucose (C6H12O6) and releases oxygen (O2). These sugars are then used as the building blocks which allow the plant to grow. When animals eat these plants (or eat other animals which have eaten plants), the sugars produced by the plant are used by the animal. They are either used directly to help the animal grow, or broken down, releasing stored solar energy, and giving the animal the energy required for motion. This process is known as glycolysis.
Animals who live close to hydrothermal vents and cold seeps on the ocean floor are not dependent on the energy of sunlight. Instead, chemosynthetic archaea and bacteria form the base of the food chain.

Humanity

Main article: Human evolution
A small African ape living around six million years ago was the last animal whose descendants would include both modern humans and their closest relatives, the bonobos, and chimpanzees. Only two branches of its family tree have surviving descendants. Very soon after the split, for reasons that are still debated, apes in one branch developed the ability to walk upright.Brain size increased rapidly, and by 2 million years ago, the very first animals classified in the genus Homo had appeared. Of course, the line between different species or even genera is rather arbitrary as organisms continuously change over generations. Around the same time, the other branch split into the ancestors of the common chimpanzee and the ancestors of the bonobo as evolution continued simultaneously in all life forms. The ability to control fire likely began in Homo erectus (or Homo ergaster), probably at least 790,000 years ago[78] but perhaps as early as 1.5 million years ago. In addition it has sometimes suggested that the use and discovery of controlled fire may even predate Homo erectus. Fire was possibly used by the early Lower Paleolithic (Oldowan) hominid Homo habilis and/or by robust australopithecines such as Paranthropus. However it is more difficult to establish the origin of language; it is unclear whether Homo erectus could speak or if that capability had not begun until Homo sapiens.[81] As brain size increased, babies were born sooner, before their heads grew too large to pass through the pelvis. As a result, they exhibited more plasticity, and thus possessed an increased capacity to learn and required a longer period of dependence. Social skills became more complex, language became more advanced, and tools became more elaborate. This contributed to further cooperation and brain development.[82] Anatomically modern humans — Homo sapiens — are believed to have originated somewhere around 200,000 years ago or earlier in Africa; the oldest fossils date back to around 160,000 years ago.[83] The first humans to show evidence of spirituality are the Neanderthals (usually classified as a separate species with no surviving descendants); they buried their dead, often apparently with food or tools. However, evidence of more sophisticated beliefs, such as the early Cro-Magnon cave paintings (probably with magical or religious significance) did not appear until some 32,000 years ago. Cro-Magnons also left behind stone figurines such as Venus of Willendorf, probably also signifying religious belief. By 11,000 years ago, Homo sapiens had reached the southern tip of South America, the last of the uninhabited continents (except for Antartica, which remained undiscovered until 1820 AD) . Tool use and language continued to improve; interpersonal relationships became more complex

Rivers and Fun

Rafting is a popular sport of Nepal. You probably already know about the number one sport of Nepal, don't you ? Here is the answer if you need! Nepal's rivers are mad, fast and furious, they provide tons of river fun. But don't be scared, some rivers are here for the easy riders too. Unspoilt Magnificent Natural surroundings add to the beauty of these rivers which will multiply your fun. Rafting is more about getting closer to the heavenly Shangrila of Nepal than losing paddles in the water! Do rafting here, you will be glad you did it. Just make sure you get hold of the right guys. Visit our Web Directory - List of Exclusive River Rafting Operators and Learn all about Rafting Sport of Nepal here It is worth carrying a water-proof camera, safety jackets, first-aid kits, tents and camps but you can leave all to our professional companies too. This sport did not become popular over-night, its popularity does say a lot about how well Nepal is prepared to take you to the rivers

Are there more rats than people?

Probably, at least in Great Britain. The human population there is around 60 million, but pest control company Rentokil estimates that between 65 and 80 million rats call the U.K. home.New York City is famously said to have one rat per resident. Although no one has ever managed to do an exact tail count of Big Apple rats, estimates vary between one rat for every 36 New Yorkers (around 256,000 rats) and a terrifying seven rats for every person (96 million rats).What's contributing to the rat boom? Warmer winters and easy access to food scraps in unsecured compost bins may be making life easier for urban rodents.Bonus rat fact: Here's what you should do if you find a rat in your toilet.