Peace Through Development

December 6, 2007 - The World Bank today extended its largest ever support package to . The aim is to improve living conditions through better education, roads, and irrigation, and empowerment among the rural poor.Susan Goldmark, World Bank Country Director for Nepal said development progress is vital for sustaining peace in the country. “At this critical juncture in Nepal’s history it is very important to demonstrate the impact on the ground. It is time for a peace benefit to emerge.”Goldmark said inequality and social exclusion are among Nepal’s foremost development challenges. The poverty rate in rural areas is much higher than in urban centers, and inequality and rural-urban disparities are increasing. Everywhere in the country, ethnic groups, low caste ‘dalit’ communities, and women lag behind in terms of incomes, assets, and most human development indicators.“Through improved schools, roads, water provision, and income-generating activities, we hope these projects will help the country step up the delivery of basic services, particularly in areas that have lost over a decade to the conflict,” Goldmark said.

Rural Communities in the Driver’s Seat December 7,

2007 - For years, Min Bahadur Magar, a 48-year old farmer in the remote Ramechhap district in eastern Nepal, had to borrow money from a local money lender – paying a 50 percent interest rate - to make ends meet.Today his life has fundamentally changed. With training and money given by the World Bank-funded Poverty Alleviation Fund (PAF), Magar started a vegetable business. He now earns nearly US$100 a month from selling vegetables alone.“I am able to feed my family all year round, and send all of my eight children to school.” said Magar. “Now I am borrowing from my community organization paying a small fee. In stead of collecting money, the man I used to borrow from comes over to buy vegetables.”Balram Sunuwar, a farmer in the neighboring village, also received training and assistance from PAF and said this has turned his life around. “There were no resources available to assist a person like me before this program. I received training which enabled me to set up my own nursery.Susan Goldmark, World Bank Country Director for Nepal said it is important for poor people, especially in rural areas, to feel that their lives are getting better in tangible ways. “It is vital to ensure they have a stake in the peace continuing. There are very high expectations after ten years lost to the civil war,” Goldmark said.

Poor people in charge of their own development

The PAF is a community-driven development project that operates on the belief it’s the poor who are best suited to manage their own needs and resources. They are organized into community groups and collectively identify, prioritize, plan, fund, and implement their development needs, free to choose from an open menu to correspond to local priorities.The PAF was designed to address the root causes of Nepal’s civil conflict - poverty, inequality, and lack of services - and the program began implementation at the height of the conflict about four years ago. It is a targeted program for the marginalized and the excluded, either because of gender, caste, ethnicity and location.Ramechhap is one of the least developed districts in Nepal - the poorest country in South Asia. One-third of Nepal’s population lives in absolute poverty with little access to basic services such as education, health, and drinking water.“69 percent of the households have food sufficiency for only three months of the year so income-generating activities are their first priority,” said Raj Babu Shrestha, PAF’s Executive Director.Through income-generating activities and community infrastructure projects, the PAF has reached over 900,000 rural Nepalese in 25 districts since it began operations. Incomes for beneficiary families have increased by some 15 percent. More than 15,600 households now have road access for the first time, and water supply, bridges, and sanitation have been provided for more than 32,000 households.With the US$100 million IDA grant approved by the World Bank on December 6 for the second phase of the project, the PAF will expand its reach to cover all of Nepal’s 75 districts, benefiting around one million households.

Empowering the Disempowered

Everywhere in the country, ethnic groups, low caste communities, and women lag behind in terms of incomes, assets, and most human development indicators. The PAF uses targets and incentives to encourage community organizations to include women, dalits and janajatis.“The results have been very encouraging,” said Geeta Sethi, the World Bank’s team leader for the project. “In Ramechhap district, for instance, over half the members of these community organizations are women, and nearly 90 percent are dalits or janajatis.”Saraswati Shrestha who works as a social mobilizer for the PAF says that women are playing a much more active role in the community.“Before, women would not go to meetings but this has all changed now. They regularly attend meetings and their voices are heard. There is a realization that men and women should work together for the community.”

Education for all Nepalese

Even during the civil war, Nepal’s education rates rose. Girls enrolled in primary school in equal number to boys, and with expanded educational reforms the country is likely to reach the target of 96 percent net enrolment rate. The US$60 million in additional financing for the IDA funned Education for All Project is designed to further improve access to basic and primary education for children, especially from disadvantaged groups. The project builds on the Community School Support Project, which has helped to significantly improve access of children from disadvantaged communities.

Irrigation for Farming

With 80 percent of the population relying on agriculture for their livelihoods, enhanced irrigation in Nepal is critical to increase incomes and reduce poverty. The US$50 million IDA grant for the Irrigation and Water Resources Management Project aims to improve irrigated agriculture productivity and management of selected irrigation schemes. It seeks to increase availability and reliability of supply of irrigation water, which is expected to lead to higher agriculture productivity and increased cropping intensity.

Access to all-season Roads

Nepal’s road density is well below those of its neighbors in South Asia. Of the75 districts of Nepal, 12 are not yet connected by road and another 14 are linked with seasonal tracks or dirt roads. The US$42.60 million IDA grant for the Road Sector Development Project supports upgrading roads in five hill districts which currently lack all-season road access, which will help improve access to economic centers and social services. It entails upgrading of about 297 km of existing dry-season roads/tracks to all-season standard with sealed gravel pavements selected from a pool of more than 1000 km of prioritized roads.

Animals

What is an animal? It's a simple enough question, but the answer is complex and requires an understanding of some rather hefty scientific concepts and terms. Here we'll explore the basic characteristics that make an organism an animal and attempt to decipher the scientific jargon that surrounds these concepts.
It's easy to say, for instance, that a giraffe, a whale, or a dog is an animal. But when it comes down to making a list of animal characteristics—identifying specific traits shared by ALL animals—it gets complicated.

The list that follows describes characteristics shared by all animals, from snails and zebras to mongooses and sea stars. These characteristics help us to declare that, for instance, corals are animals, not plants. They help us trace the evolution of animals and build a framework for placing animals into subcategories that are more familiar to us such as birds, mammals, reptiles or amphibians.

1. All animals are eukaryotes.

All living organisms can be sorted into one of two groups depending on the basic structure of their cells. These two groups are called the prokaryotes and the eukaryotes.
Prokaryotes and eukaryotes differ from one another in many fundamental ways but the differences are difficult to see. Cells are tiny and you must use a microscope to view their internal structure. But once magnified, the differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes becomes more apparent. The interna

structure of a prokaryote cell is less complex than that of a eukaryote. Prokaryotes have no nucleus, eukaryotes have a nucleus. In eukaryotes, the nucleus holds the cell's genetic material within a membrane. In prokaryotes, genetic material is located in a central region of the cell and is called a nucleoid, it is not enclosed in a membrane.
And the differences do not stop at the nucleus. There are numerous other differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes:

Eukaryotes have linear strands of genetic material (DNA); prokaryotes have circular DNA.
Eukaryotic DNA is attached to proteins (called histones) and is organized into chromosomes; prokaryotic DNA is not associated with proteins nor is it organized in chromosomes.
Eukaryotic cells have numerous membrane-bound structures within the cell called organelles. These organelles perform various functions within the cell. Prokaryotes lack any such membrane-bound structures.

Eukaryotic cells are more complex, structured, and larger than prokaryotic cells.
Despite these differences, eukaryotes and prokaryotes share many characteristics and are therefore believed to be evolutionarily related. Scientists believe that the more complex eukaryotes evolved from the earlier prokaryotes.
So all animals are eukaryotes. That is, they are made up of complex cell that have membrane-bound nuclei and organelles. Their DNA is linear and organized into chromosomes. Keep in mind though, that the reverse is not true—not all eukaryotes are animals. Plants, fungi, and protists—in addition to animals—are eukaryotes.

2. All animals are heterotrophs.

All living things need carbon to support the basic processes of life such as growth, development, and reproduction. There are two ways an organism can get the carbon they need:
An organism can assimilate carbon from their environment in the form of carbon dioxide (from the atmosphere) or inorganic compounds. They can ingest other organisms and thus obtain carbon from the organic materials that make up the other organism. The term autotroph describes such organisms
An organism can obtain the carbon they need by getting it from other living organisms that are made up of carbon-containing organic molecules. The term heterotroph describes this type of organism, one that uses organic materials as a source of energy for growth and development.
Green plants are autotrophs. They take energy from the sun and use it along with carbon available in the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide to produce sugar, a simple organic compound. In contrast, all animals are heterotrophs. They ingest plants and other organisms as a way to get their carbon the energy they need to live.

3. Animals are multicellular. Most animals (with the exception of sponges) have bodies that are differentiated into tissues.

Animals' bodies are made up of multiple cells. In most animals, those cells are organized into different tissues that perform different functions. During the development of an animal, cells differentiate so they can perform specific functions. Groups of cells with similar specializations that form a common function are referred to as a tissue. One exception to this is sponges (Phylum Porifera) which have do not posses tissues (they don't have muscles or nerves).

4. Most animals are capable of movement.

Unlike plants, which are fixed to the substrate in which they grow, most animals are motile (capable of movement). One exception is again sponges, which are sedentary organisms

4. Most animals undergo sexual reproduction although a small number are capable of asexual reproduction.

Most animals reproduce sexually via egg and sperm. This means genetic information is crossed between individuals and variability between parents and offspring is maintained. There are a few animals that are capable of asexual (non sexual) reproduction. These include .

5. Most animals are diploid.

The terms diploid and haploid are used to describe how many copies of genetic material are contained within a cell. In diploid cells, there are two full sets of the cell's genetic material, in haploid cells, there is only one full set of the cell's genetic material. Most animals are made up of diploid cells.

6. Animals do not possess rigid cell wals (plants do have rigid cell walls)

In plants, the cell wall provides structural support and protection for the cell. Some bacteria also possess cell walls. Animals do not have cell walls.

About Tiger

TAXONOMY
1. Cat species comprise about 16% of the world's carnivores. The taxonomic classification has fluctuated since new morphological and genetic research has been documented.

2.The Felidae family has 18 genera encompassing about 40 species. There are 13 genera within the Felinae subfamily, 4 genera within the Pantherinae subfamily and 1 within the Acinonychinae subfamily.

3.There are eight recognized subspecies of tiger, five of which are living (Bengal, Amur, Indo-Chinese, Sumatran and South China tigers). These subspecies are distinguished by their geographic distribution and physical characteristics such as size, hair length and/or thickness and striping.

4.The Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) has reddish-orange colored fur with dark brown-black vertical stripes. Bengal tigers may weigh up to 220 kg (480 lb) and are about 2.9 m (9.5 ft) in length. They inhabit the Indian subcontinent, India, Nepal, Bangledesh and Burma. This is the subspecies found at Busch Gardens Tampa Bay

The Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) is the largest living cat species, weighing up to 300 kg. (660 lb) and is about 3.3 m. (10.9 ft) in length. Historically they were called Siberian tigers but have since been renamed because they are currently found near the Amur River region of Russia, China and North Korea, not Siberia. Amur tigers have lighter and fewer stripes than other tiger subspecies. They have long and thick hair to help them stay warm in their cold climate.

5.The Indo-Chinese tiger (Panthera tigris corbetti) is one of the smallest tiger subspecies, weighing up to 182 kg (400 lb) and is about 2.8 m (9ft) in length. They have a large range encompassing continental southeast Asia region (southern China, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, Malaysia, Thailand and eastern Burma).

6.The South China tiger (Panthera tigris amoyensis) are native to South Central China. They may weigh up to 150 kg (330 lb) and are about 2.5 m (8 ft) in length. South China tigers are the most critically endangered of all tiger subspecies with a population estimate between 30 to 80 individuals.

7.The Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) is the smallest living tiger subspecies, weighing up to 120 kg (265 lb) and is about 2.4 m (8 ft) in length. They are found in Sumatra, part of Indonesia. The Sumatran tiger's fur is darker in coloration than other tiger species with a deep orange to reddish coat and black stripes.

8.The Javan tiger (Panthera tigris sondaica) was exclusively found in Java Indonesia and went extinct in the early 1980's They had thin black stripes that were usually double-looped. The Javan and Bali tigers were very similar in their small size weighing only 90 to 90 kg (200 to 220 lb)

9.The Caspian tiger (Panthera tigris virgata) was native from Turkey through central and west Asia and went extinct around the 1950's. They had a distinctive style for hunting in that they stalked migrating prey over long distances rather than holding territories like other tiger subspecies. The Balinese tiger (Panthera tigris balica) was exclusively found in Bali in Indonesia and went extinct in the early 1930's. The Javan and Bali tigers were very similar in their small size weighing only 90 to 90 kg (200 to 220 lb)

NOMENCLATURE

1.The species name tigris is Greek for "arrow". It is thought that its name was derived from the straight (as an arrow) and fast-flowing Tigris river that lies between Kurdistan in east central Turkey and the Persian Gulf

PHYLOGENY
1.The genus Panthera includes the following four big cat species, tiger (Panthera tigris), lion (Panthera leo), leopard (Panthera pardus) and jaguar (Panthera onca) that are capable of roaring. These big cats possess thickened vocal folds below their vocal cords and a roar is produced by vibrations of these folds. Historically, snow leopards were classified under the Panthera genus. However, their less-developed vocal folds have led to their reclassification into their own genus

FOSSIL RECORD

1.Many scientists believe the first mammals emerged about 208 million years ago but the true Age of Mammals did not begin until about 65 million years ago, after dinosaurs became extinc

2.The first carnivores emerged from a group of animals known as miacoids about 60 to 80 million years ago. About the size of a domestic cat, 1 to 3 kg (2 to 7 lb), miacoids were arboreal (tree-dwelling) and had developed carnassials (sharp cutting teeth) which they used for cutting and crushing. Miacoids are the oldest tiger ancestors recorded to date.

3.Carnivores divided into two groups called Feliformia and Caniformia about 40 million years ago. The Feliformia group was more cat-like and eventually encompassed animals that include cats, hyenas, civets and mongooses. The Caniformia group was more bear-like and eventually encompassed animals that include bears, raccoons, weasels, dogs, skunks, badgers, sea lions, seals and walruses.

4.About 37 million years ago civets and mongooses diverged from the Feliformia group into their own respective group or clade. Hyenas diverged from the Feliformia group later, around 35 million years ago, into their respective clade.

5.Thirty million years ago Proailurus, the oldest cat appeared in the fossil record. Proailurus was native to the area now known as France. It is estimated to have weighed about 25 pounds, had a length of about 75 cm (30 in), arboreal and had eight more teeth than modern day cats.

6.Twenty million years ago a group of cats called Pseudaelurines appeared in the fossil record and are believed to be the direct ancestors of all modern day cat species (37 species).

7.About 1.6 million years ago Smilodon appeared in the fossil record and is known as the saber-toothed cat. Smilodon fossils were discovered from the La Brea tar pits, which is Los Angeles today, but their genus was widespread throughout North and South America. The saber-tooth name was derived from their long curved upper canines which resembled sabers. Saber-toothed cats became extinct about 10,000 years ago.

8.Fossil evidence and genetic information has determined that the lion, leopard and jaguar have more in common with each other than with the tiger. Thus it is estimated that the tiger diverged earlier from the common Panthera ancestor than other members of its genus.

EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVES OF THE TIGER

1.The first people to embrace the tiger as an important symbol in their culture were the Indus Valley civilization of Harappa and Mohenjo Daro (area known today as Pakistan) around 5,000 years ago. Tiger symbols were engraved on seals and worn as amulets as a representation of property ownership.

2.Over a thousand years ago the Roman Empire was at its peak. Tigers with their great strength were used for entertainment purposes in Colosseum games.